Volcanic Origins Island chains form through volcanic activity where magma reaches Earth's surface through oceanic crust. Hot spots in the mantle create magma plumes that build volcanic islands, while plate movement creates chains as new islands form. The Hawaiian Islands demonstrate this proc

Formation Mechanics Cave systems form primarily through chemical weathering where water dissolves soluble rock like limestone. Carbonic acid from rainwater combines with carbon dioxide, creating a solution that dissolves calcium carbonate. This process, called karstification, creates cavities tha

Sediment Transport River systems carry sediment loads ranging from fine silt to coarse sand. As rivers approach water bodies, reduced velocity causes sediment deposition. This accumulation creates distinctive delta shapes determined by the balance between river deposits and wave or tidal erosion.

Flow Mechanics Glaciers flow under their own weight through internal deformation and basal sliding. Ice crystals deform under pressure, while meltwater at the base lubricates movement. Flow rates vary from meters to kilometers per year, depending on slope, temperature, and ice thickness. Forma